CHAPTER CONCEPTS AND TERMS

Following the successful study of each chapter listed below, students should be able to understand, describe, discuss, synthesize, and creatively use the concepts listed. They should also be able to define, describe, or recognize the description of each listed term.

CH 1: The Scientific Study of Life

CONCEPTS

· Life’s hierarchy of organization: universe, biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism, organ system, organ, tissues, cell, molecule.

· Scientific method: observations, questions, hypothesis, predictions, tests, modification of hypothesis if needed.

· Hypothesis vs theory.

· Diversity of life: Classification of diverse life forms - 3 Domains; 4 Kingdoms.

· Unity of life: Common features of all living organisms - characteristics of life vs nonlife: order, regulation, growth and development, energy utilization, and reproduction.

· Theory of evolution (Charles Darwin) - an explanation of the unity and diversity of life on Earth.

· Web of life within ecosystems: nutrient cycling and energy flow; role of photo-synthesizers and decomposers.

TERMS

deductive reasoning universe Domain Bacteria

controlled experiment biosphere Domain Archaea

hypothesis ecosystem Domain Eukarya

theory community species

prokaryote population photosynthesizer

eukaryote organism decomposer

domain organ technology

kingdom tissue

evolution cell

natural selection molecule

adaptation

CH 2: The Chemical Basis of Life

CONCEPTS

· Emergence of life begins at the chemical level: each level in hierarchy builds on the one below it and new properties of life emerge that were not present at simpler levels of organization. These emergent properties begin at the molecular level.

· Structure of the atom.

· Electron arrangement and chemical properties of an atom.

· Chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, hydrogen.

· Water and its unusual properties that allow life on this planet: polarity, hydrogen bonding, cohesiveness, temperature moderation, density of ice vs density of liquid water, solvent ability.

· Life’s sensitivity to acidic and basic conditions.

· Chemical reactions – a rearrangement of matter.

TERMS

matter, mass acids

element – trace element bases

compound pH scale

atom – electron – proton – neutron – nucleus buffer

electron shell cohesion

isotope surface tension

atomic number heat

mass number temperature

chemical reaction solution

molecule solvent

polar molecule solute

covalent bond aqueous solution

polar covalent bond chemical reaction

ionic bond reactant

hydrogen bond product

acid precipitation

CH 2 and 3: SOME DEFINITIONS

Matter: anything that has mass and occupies space; exists in three phases: solid, liquid,

gas. Ex: plants, animals, bacteria, rocks, water, air.

Element: a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by ordinary

chemical or physical means. Ex: carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, gold, sulfur.

Atom: the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.

Molecule: a unit of matter consisting of two or more atoms combined in a fixed ratio;

the smallest unit of a compound. Ex: water (H₂O); glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)

Compound: a substance containing two or more elements in a fixed ratio.

Ex: methane (CH₄); sodium chloride (NaCl)

Covalent bond: an attraction between atoms that share one or more pairs of outer-shell

electrons; symbolized by a single line between the atoms.

Monomers: small molecular units that serve as building blocks for polymers.

Polymers: macromolecules made from monomers linked by dehydration synthesis.

Dehydration synthesis: a chemical reaction in which a polymer is formed by monomers

linked together by the removal of water molecules. One molecule of water is

removed for each pair of monomers linked.

Hydrolysis: a chemical reaction in which macromolecules are broken down by the

chemical addition of water molecules to the bonds linking their monomers. An

essential part of digestion.

CH 3: The Molecules of Cells

CONCEPTS

· Organic compounds – properties of carbon and life’s diversity.

· Functional groups and their role – hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, and amino.

· Dehydration synthesis: Cells make large molecules by joining smaller ones – polymers, monomers.

· Hydrolysis: Cells break down macromolecules for food and for use in biosynthesis.

· The four classes of macromolecules that cells make, the monomers or molecules from which they are made, and how these macromolecules are used: carbo-hydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides), lipids (fats, phospholipids, waxes, and steroids), proteins (7 major classes), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).

· Linus Pauling – his contributions to our understanding of the molecular structure of life.

TERMS

organic compounds hydrophilic

macromolecule hydrophobic

functional groups triglyceride

hydrolysis glycerol

dehydration synthesis fatty acid

monomer saturated fat

polymer unsaturated fat

monosaccharide phospholipid

disaccharide waxes

polysaccharide steroid

protein cholesterol

amino acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

enzyme ribonucleic acid (RNA)

nucleic acid nucleotide

lipid adenine

fat thymine

carbohydrate cytosine

starch guanine

glycogen uracil

cellulose phosphate group

chitin nitrogenous bases

peptide bond

polypeptide

denaturation

CH 4: A Tour of the Cell

CONCEPTS

• Contrast the types of microscopes and their specific uses: light, electron, scanning electron, and transmission electron microscopes.
• Cell theory; the relationship between cell size and its function; the natural laws that limit cell size.
• Compare and contrast the major differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
• Endomembrane system: its function; the advantages of having one.
• Organelles that make up the endomembrane system and the function of each: nucleus, rough and smooth ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles.
• Organelles outside the endomembrane system and the function of each: chloroplasts, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella.
• Cell communication: plasmodesmata, tight junctions, anchoring junctions, and communicating junctions.
• Functional categories of organelles.

TERMS

cell theory nucleus cell junctions

prokaryotic cell chromatin plasmodesmata

eukaryotic cell chromosome tight junctions

ribosomes nuclear envelope anchoring junctions

plasma membrane nucleolus communicating

cell wall endomembrane system junctions

cytoplasm endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

organelles rough ER

cellular metabolism smooth ER

transport vesicle Golgi apparatus

lysosomes vacuoles

chloroplasts stroma

mitochondria grana, -um

intermembrane space cristae

mitochondrial matrix cytoskeleton

microfilaments cilia

intermediate filaments flagella

microtubules

CH 5: The Working Cell

CONCEPTS

• What is energy and how do organisms use it.
• Two laws govern energy conversion: first and second laws of thermodynamics. How are these laws related to living organisms?
• Chemical reactions: endergonic and exergonic. How do cells couple these two reactions to do work?
• The role of ATP and chemical energy in cells.
• The role of enzymes in cellular chemical reactions; how enzymes work.
• Effect of the cellular environment on enzyme activity.
• Structure and function of cell membranes.
• Function of certain proteins in cell membranes.
• How substances get into and out of cells: passive transport (diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion), active transport, exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis.

TERMS

energy first law of thermodynamics

kinetic energy second law of thermodynamics

poential energy entropy

chemical energy endergonic reaction facilitated diffusion

thermodynamics exergonic reaction transport protein

cellular respiration energy coupling solute

cellular metabolism phosphorylation endocytosis

enzyme cofactor exocytosis

substrate coenzyme phagocytosis

energy of activation, E_A enzyme inhibitor pinocytosis

selective permeability protein receptor receptor-mediated

phospholipids signal transduction endocytosis

fluid mosaic model concentration gradient

passive transport hypertonic

diffusion hypotonic

osmosis isotonic

osmoregulation

CH 6: Cellular Respiration

How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy

CONCEPTS

• The summary equation for cellular respiration – a redox reaction:

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP)

• Oxidation and reduction: Cells tap energy from electrons transferred from organic fuels to oxygen.
• ATP is generated by two mechanisms: chemiosmosis and substrate-level phosphorylation.
• The three stages of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain; the process of each, their function, their reactants and products, how they work together, and how many ATPs are gleaned at each stage.
• The role of chemiosmosis in the synthesis of ATP.
• Pathways of molecular breakdown of polysaccharides, fats, and proteins and their use in biosynthesis.

TERMS

anaerobic chemiosmosis

aerobic ATP synthase

cellular respiration substrate-level phosphorylation

oxidation glycolysis

reduction Krebs cycle

dehydrogenase electron transport chain

NAD+, NADH glucose

ATP pyruvic acid

FAD, FADH₂ acetyl CoA

electron carrier

CH 7: Photosynthesis

CONCEPTS

· The summary equation for photosynthesis – a redox reaction:

carbon dioxide + water + sunlight → glucose + oxygen + energy (ATP)

· The two stages of photosynthesis: light reactions and the Calvin cycle; the process of each, their function, their reactants and products, how they work together, and how many ATPs are gleaned at each stage.

· Role of visible radiation from the sun and photosystems I and II of a chloroplast.

· Role of chemiosmosis in the synthesis of ATP.

· Three plant adaptations that conserve water: C₃, C₄, and CAM plants.

· The connection between photosynthesis, human activity, and global warming.

TERMS

photosynthesis light reactions photosystem I, II

autotrophs Calvin cycle reaction center

heterotrophs chemiosmosis rubisco (RuBP)

producers carbon fixation photorespiration

mesophyll NADP+, NADPH greenhouse effect

stomata, stoma electromagnetic energy ozone layer

stroma photon

thylakoid photophosphorylation

grana

CH 8: The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance

Mitosis and Meiosis

CONCEPTS

• Compare and contrast the 3 types of reproduction: binary fission, asexual, and sexual.
• Role of cellular reproduction (cell division) in multicellular organisms:
• Relate DNA and DNA replication to chromosomes and cell division.
• The eukaryotic cell cycle: the processes of each phase (interphase and mitotic phase); its role in cell division.
• Mitosis: the processes of each phase; the function of mitosis.
• Compare and contrast cell division in plants and in animals.
• Factors affecting cell division: anchorage dependence, density-dependence, growth factors; the process of cancer.
• Meiosis: the processes of meiosis I and meiosis II; the function of meiosis.
• Compare and contrast mitosis with meiosis.
• Processes in meiosis that lead to varied offspring: random fertilization, different versions of genes carried by homologous chromosomes; independent orientation of chromosomes at metaphase I, crossing over at prophase I.
• Abnormalities caused by alterations of chromosome number or chromosome structure during meiosis can cause abnormalities: Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome (XXY), Turner syndrome (XO), mental retardation, cancer.

TERMS

chromosome binary fission prophase

chromatid sexual reproduction metaphase

sister chromatid cell cycle anaphase

centromere interphase telophase

cell division mitotic phase cytokinesis

mitosis centrosomes prophase I, II

meiosis I, II mitotic spindle anaphase I, II

metaphase plate kinetochore telophase I, II

daughter chromosomes cleavage furrow somatic cell

anchorage dependence cell plate gamete (sex cell)

density-dependence growth factor zygote

homologous chromosomes autosomes haploid

sex chromosomes chiasma diploid

karyotype nondisjunction

CH 9: Patterns of Inheritance

CONCEPTS

• Gregor Mendel: his contribution to the science of genetics
• Mendel’s principle of segregation as revealed in monohybrid crosses.
• Mendel’s principle of independent assortment as revealed in dihybrid crosses.
• Understand the chromosomal basis for Mendel’s principles.
• Understand dominant and recessive alleles, homozygosity and heterozygosity and how each affects inheritance.
• Use of a Punnett square to predict proportions of offspring inheriting specific characteristics.
• Understand the relationship of genotype and phenotype.
• Connections: Genetic traits and family pedigrees; inherited disorders in humans; genetic testing to detect disease-causing alleles; and amniocentesis to reveal inherited disorders early in pregnancy.
• Some characteristics do not follow Mendel’s principles: incomplete dominance, ABO blood groups, sickle-cell disease, polygenic inheritance.
• Sex chromosomes, sex-linked genes and unique patterns of inheritance.

TERMS

genetics monohybrid cross allele

self-fertilize dihybrid cross dominant allele

hybrid trihybrid cross recessive allele

P generation homozygous phenotype

F₁ generation heterozygous genotype

F₂ generation testcross carrier

Punnett square recessive disorders pleiotropy

incomplete dominance dominant disorders sex chromosomes

polygenic inheritance linked genes monoecious

homologous chromosome sex-linked genes dioecious

hermaphroditic

CH 10: Molecular Biology of the Gene

CONCEPTS

• DNA is the agent of heredity – a molecular explanation for genetic inheritance.
• Role of James Watson, Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin in the determination of the structure of DNA.
• The structure of the DNA molecule; specific chemical bonding of base pairs; compared with that of RNA.
• The process of DNA replication in cell division (somatic cells and sex cells); specific base pairing of complementary bases.
• Transcription and translation: The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein.
• The genetic code – a triplet code (codons).
• Role of ribosomes and the RNAs: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
• Mutations: how they occur; harmful and beneficial, role in evolution.

TERMS

bacteriophages, phages thymine (T)

nucleotides cytosine (C)

polynucleotide adenine (A)

sugar-phosphate backbone guanine (G)

double helix uracil (U)

replication DNA polymerase

transcription DNA ligase

translation nucleic acid

genetic code amino acid

codon RNA polymerase

triplet code promoter

mRNA terminator

tRNA anticodon

rRNA peptide bond

ribosome protein

mutation gene

DNA

RNA